Hijacking our Minds: Effect of Short Form Content on Human Brains

The impact of new media on sports has been significant, changing how people can interact with their favourite teams and players. There are over two billion active users on
Facebook, one of the biggest social media outlets in the world (Saxena & Saroha, 2017). With social media platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, and X[^1] now growing faster
than ever, it has grown into the basketball world. Social media has both a positive and negative impact on sport culture. It has improved the relationships between teams,
athletes, and fans to create a better connection and create a sense of unity to help make fans feel like they are a part of the team. However, social media does have its drawback.
With highlight culture becoming increasingly more prevalent on social media, it has effectively ruined basketball culture in youth sport, by negatively influencing the youth that look
up to these star players.

# Fan Engagement
Professional sport has always been about trying to generate a profit, and social media go hand in hand to transform the way fans have been able to engage with their fanbase. The two- way
communication allows fans to engage, react, and feel more connected to their favourite teams and athletes, which allows the creation of a sense of community and helps create more loyalty
the fan base. There is research done that showed that online social platform communications have a huge impact on the online fanbase (Trivedi et al., 2020, as cited in Saxena
& Saroha, 2023). Athletes can also use their platform to share their believes and advocate for social change, not only to engage with fans on a deeper level, but to further the sense
of community.

## Toronto Raptors Open Gym
In 2012, the Toronto Raptors (Raptors) created a TV series called Open Gym that allowed fans to “[follow] the marathon of each NBA season focusing [on] the [Raptors] team, showcasing the
trials, tribulations and triumphs endured” (Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment, 2012). While it’s unclear why the series began, they want athletes to connect with their fans by showing
their training sessions, pre-game preparations, and other aspects that fans typically do not see.

There is an emotional aspect to the TV series, as fans do not see the human in athletes. Typically fans only get to see athletes as puppets playing for their favourite team,
but the series shows the human side of them. It allows viewers to see the player's authentic self, as the TV series shows all the emotions that are at full display in a trade.
After the Raptors traded for Marc Gasol, broadcaster Jack Armstrong states that “from a personal perspective, you miss them ... and in this business, you’re not supposed to get
emotionally connected, but you do because we’re people” (Toronto Raptors, 2019, 11:17). Without this TV series, fans do not get to see this side of the sport. Fans only get to see
what happens on TV. They only get to see their athletic performances. By sharing these personal moments, athletes can humanise themselves, making them more relatable and approachable
to their audience.

## Social Justice Movement in the Bubble
Athletes can also use their platform to share sponsors and stand for causes that they believe in. A recent example of this was when the National Basketball Association (NBA) held the
remainder of the regular season and the playoff in Orlando during the Coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic, which they had called the bubble. NBA players were using their platform to promote
social justice. Players would wear jerseys that would not only have their surnames, but social messages as well such as “Equality”, “Black Lives Matter”, “Love Us”, “Peace”, and “I Can’t
Breathe” (Season Restart: Team-by-team Social Justice Messages on Jerseys | NBA.com, 2020). Boston Celtics star Jaylen Brown says that it is important that players use their platform
because “[their] job ... is to keep these conversations going” (Andrews & Spears, 2020). Athletes using their platform to promote social causes can spark conversations, raise awareness on
important issues, and call for positive societal impact. By utilising their popularity to talk about social justice issues, athletes engage fans in meaningful discussions and contribute to
positive change.

Another instance of NBA players using their platform was when the Milwaukee Bucks (Bucks) players and coaches boycotted their playoff game against the Orlando Magic (Magic) following the
death of Jacob Blake (ESPN.com, 2020). The Bucks had full intentions of taking the loss but were surprised when the Magic and the rest of the league followed suit. Including the Bucks vs
Magic game, the NBA postponed three playoff games that day, and postponed the following games on Thursday as well. But not only did the protest include the NBA, the decision led to
postponements in other leagues, such as the Women’s National Basketball Association, Major League Baseball, and Major League Soccer. Current Bucks coach, Doc Rivers, supported the boycott
of games saying that “[their] talent is [their] power” (ESPN.com, 2020). However, this would come with some backlash as “[it was] fine ... and now it’s sort of out of fashion so now they
aren’t doing it, which makes you wonder how genuine it was” (J. Abraham, personal communication, March 3, 2024). Abraham makes an interesting point, suggesting that these protests were
just empty gestures rather than trying to create change for the better. However, it is important to take note of an athlete’s perspective, as they face pressure from stakeholders,
sponsors, and fans, which can influence their decisions and actions. While the immediate effect of the boycott may be small, its importance serves as a spark for more conversation
about racial injustice and police brutality. It highlights that athletes have the potential to use their platform for greater social change.

The boycott initiated by the Bucks and its subsequent ripple effects across other professional sports leagues highlights the relationship between sports and activism. While it sparked
debate and criticism, it continues to grow awareness. It shows the power of athletes to effect meaningful change both inside and outside the world of basketball.

# Effects on Basketball Culture
Basketball culture is a complex concept that encompasses the social and cultural significance of the sport of basketball. It has been widely popularised around the world and is no longer
limited to the scope of sports and games but is embedded into social factors.

Highlight culture is a newly arising in the world today. Simple things such as hustle plays, talking on defence, taking good shots, or playing actual defence does not generate any views on
mixtapes because that is not cool (Rivers & Haghighi, 2023). Only the best players would get a mixtape during Austin Rivers time in high school, because that was when it had not been
popularised yet. It was an honour to get a mixtape. Media teams like Ball is Life and Hoopmixtape would follow someone because they were a great player. Parents now can pay companies to
create a mixtape for their children to generate some exposure for their kids. But this is not entirely the company’s fault. It just happens to be the result of our environment and culture
that society has created (Stooeyburger, 2023). Sim (2023) found that 34% of fans between 18 and 24 years old prefer to watch highlights, and only 30% of the same age group prefer to watch
the game fully. Then with the remainder of those who watch the game, 50% of NBA fans under 35 wait until the fourth quarter, which encouraged the NBA to add an option to watch just the
fourth quarter of any game (Kotuby, 2021). Fans watching partial games or just highlights can be rooted in several factors, such as time constraints and the convenience of consuming
shorter content.

After TV, social media platforms are the next most popular way to consume sports (Sim, 2023). More specifically, the rise of a new social media, TikTok, caused a ripple effect for the
growth of highlight culture. TikTok was very successful as it is highly addictive. It has a wide range of content from dancing, cooking, and comedy skits, and this was able to reach a
bigger audience and encourage active engagement (Geyser, 2024). TikTok’s 60 second videos are so addictive, that other social media platforms such as Instagram and YouTube have created
their own version of these short form videos. These short form videos are very addictive due to the algorithm-based recommendation (Rach & Peter, 2021 as cited in Kohler, 2023). This
algorithm keeps people engaged on the social media platform because it feeds the user what they want to see. The continued video consumption leads to the most dominant motivational driver
for short form videos, escapism. Escapism can be defined as the pursuit of happiness, and fun in addition to the primary drivers of communication and self-expression to divert our
attention from our hectic daily lives (Rach & Peter, 2021 as cited in Kohler, 2023). A Reddit user talks about how they fell into a TikTok addiction began by saying:

> Prior to quarantine,[^2] I was never really interested in TikTok because it just never
appealed to me... I caught on the wave, first by watching TikTok compilations on
YouTube... Now I’m in a deep hole of watching [TikTok’s] hours on end. The company
has a way to deliver drugs through the screen, seriously. The algorithm is so fucked...
I've become depressed and can't find the motivation to do anything...my dopamine
addiction is so bad that I can't focus for a second. (Anyone else feel like TikTok has
reduced their attention span from 8 seconds to 0.5?, 2021)

This is backed by Wilmer et al. (2017) who found that large social media consumption is associated with shorter attention spans. The correlation between the shorter attention spans and
growing of short form content is what increased the growth of highlight culture.

This increase of highlights has effects that then trickle down into youth basketball. When these highlight plays are what kids see on social media, they idolise these players, and they try
to imitate what they do (Stooeyburger, 2023). In a highlight mixtape for a 3rd grade basketball team, NBA players such as Fournier (2023) stated “[NBA players] need to set a better
exemple [sic] for this new generation”, and Lillard (2023) added on saying “It’s getting out of control”. An Edmonton Basketball Officials Association official stated that highlight
culture “makes the benches a lot more toxic, and at higher levels it makes the parents more toxic as well” (N. Hamel, personal communication, March 10, 2024). Basketball is losing its
organic nature, as highlight culture becomes more dominant, and it will continue to dominate (Stooeyburger, 2023).

## Toronto Raptors Pizza Party
On December 5, 2023, Raptors coach Darko Rajakovic promised his players if they win three straight games, an all-expenses paid dinner (Sutelan, 2024). Slowly overtime, this all- expenses
paid dinner slowly turned into a pizza party. After three months, the Raptors had accomplished the feat by beating the Indiana Pacers, Atlanta Hawks, and Brooklyn Nets. At first, the idea
of having a meal from the coach seems a bit silly, as if free food is enough to motivate athletes who are getting paid millions. However, this creates a better team culture around the
Raptors team. Rajakovic stated that he had intended to get the team a nice dinner, but due to the team’s humble nature, they insisted on having pizza party instead (Toronto Raptors, 2024).
By opting into a pizza party, the Raptors showed their preference for team bonding, which can translate onto the court with the improved team chemistry. This incident also shows how social
media can be used to close the gap between fans and athletes by presenting the athletes as individuals who also enjoy simple things like pizza. The playful nature of this pizza party
created a sense of anticipation for Raptors fans, which allowed them to engage with the team’s culture. The pizza party became a moment of celebration that went beyond the Raptors team,
and to the fans as well.

# Conclusion
The growth of social media has significantly changed the landscape of basketball, both in terms of fan engagement and basketball culture itself. Highlight culture has shifted the focus
of young players toward achieving 60 seconds of fame on social media, rather than focusing on the fundamentals and trying to make the right play. On the other hand, social media has
increased fan engagement, allowing fans to get close and personal with their favourite teams as platforms have become crucial for sports teams to communicate with their fans to create
a sense of community. Social media has also provided players with a powerful platform to push for a positive change. The influence of basketball stars on social media extends beyond
the court, as they advocate for social causes. Social media is a double-edged sword the way it has a positive impact on the sport of basketball, and a negative impact, and it is too
inconclusive to state whether if it is purely one or another.

# References
Andrews, M., & Spears, M. J. (2020, July 29). NBA Restart – How the NBA Bubble Has
Become a Platform for Social Justice –
ESPN. ESPN.com. https://www.espn.com/nba/story/_/id/29555143/nba-restart-how-nba-bubble-become-platform-social-justice

Anyone Else Feel Like TikTok Has Reduced Their Attention Span From 8 Seconds to 0.5? (2021,
June 8).
Reddit. https://www.reddit.com/r/nosurf/comments/o358y8/anyone_else_feel_like_tiktok_has_reduced_their/

ESPN.com. (2020, August 27). Inside the Hectic Hours Around a Historic NBA Boycott –
ESPN. ESPN.com. https://www.espn.com/nba/story/_/id/29750724/inside-hectic-hours-historic-nba-boycott

Fournier, E. [@EvanFourmizz]. (2023, January 17). Smh. We need to set a better exemple for
this new generation man.
X. https://x.com/EvanFourmizz/status/1615418348224782336?s=20

Geyser, W. (2024, January 30). The Incredible Rise of TikTok. Influencer Marketing
Hub. https://influencermarketinghub.com/tiktok-growth/

Kohler, T. J. (2023). Caught in the Loop: The Effects of the Addictive Nature of Short-Form
Videos on Users’ Perceived Attention Span and Mood [Bachelor Thesis, University of
Twente]. http://essay.utwente.nl/96577/1/Kohler_BA_BMS.pdf

Kotuby, J. (2021, March 25). Study: Fewer Sports Fans Watching Entire Games. The
Streamable. https://thestreamable.com/news/study-shows-increasing-number-of-sports-
fans-only-watch-end-of-games

Lillard, D. [@Dame_Lillard]. (2023, January 17). Facts . It’s getting out of control.
X. https://x.com/Dame_Lillard/status/1615579053754548225?s=20

Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment. (2012, October 31). Open Gym (TV Series 2012– ).
IMDb. https://www.imdb.com/title/tt2814508/

Rivers, A., & Haghighi, P. (2023, January 13). Young Talent, Veteran Exposure, and How
Highlight Culture Has Killed Basketball (episode 1). The
Ringer. https://open.spotify.com/episode/4Q5PesFkbyetO3JXPehavl

Saxena, C., & Saroha, A. (2023). Social media in Sports Industry- Impacts, Trends and Future: A
review. Journal of Communication and Management, 2(03), 27–31. https://doi.org/10.58966/jcm2023235

Season Restart: Team-by-Team Social Justice Messages on Jerseys | NBA.com. (2020, July
24). https://www.nba.com/2020-restart-nba-social-justice-jersey-messages

Sim, J. (2023, May 18). Study: 34% of Sports Fans Aged 18 to 24 Prefer Highlights Over Full
Games. SportsPro. https://www.sportspromedia.com/news/global-sports-fans-viewing-habits-highlights-clips-yougov-study/

Stooeyburger. (2023, January 21). The Conversation Surrounding Highlight Culture.
Reddit. https://www.reddit.com/r/nba/comments/10hzsut/the_conversation_surrounding_highlight_culture/

Sutelan, E. (2024, February 27). Raptors pizza party: Why team is celebrating after topping
Pacers for third straight win. Sporting
News. https://www.sportingnews.com/us/nba/news/raptors-pizza-party-third-straight-win-pacers/7b279b83113cef92c75c1776

Toronto Raptors. (2019, February 22). Moves (season 7, episode 16).
In YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nJUTofopdWs

Toronto Raptors. (2024, February 27). Toronto Raptors Media Availability | Postgame at
Indiana Pacers | February 26, 2024 [Video].
YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BF5OEv2M90w

Wilmer, H. H., Sherman, L. E., & Chein, J. (2017). Smartphones and Cognition: A Review of
Research Exploring the Links between Mobile Technology Habits and Cognitive
Functioning. Frontiers in Psychology, 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00605

[^1]: Formerly known as Twitter
[^2]: Quarantine caused by the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2020 and ended in May 2023.

How Social Media has Impacted Basketball

# 1.1 Introduction
At some point, most people have experienced a muscle cramp at one point or another, even the most fit athletes.[^Bergeron] Cramps are generally agreed upon to be any sudden and involuntary painful skeletal muscle contractions seemingly without warning or probable cause. It is found that cramps can become more frequent when someone has a neuromuscular disease or being dehydrated or excessive exercise.[^Katzberg] Even though the true source of cramps are still unknown, there are still ways that skeletal muscle cramps can be treated. This is what makes skeletal muscle cramps a phenom, and why there is constant research around it.

# 2.1 Skeletal Muscle Anatomy
Cramps are usually found most often in the triceps surae, hamstrings, and quadriceps[^Alaia], however this does not stop them from being prevalent in other parts of the body. To first understand how cramps begin, it is best to understand some basic muscle anatomy. Firstly, skeletal muscle is made up of many fascicle groups which are surrounded by epimysium. Epimysium is a sheet of connective tissue which surrounds the muscle. Each fascicle contains some muscle fibres that are surrounded by perimysium. Perimysium is just a continuation of epimysium. Inside the muscle fibre is then myofibril, which contains the sarcomere, the main thing that causes contraction in the muscle. Sarcomeres contain two filaments, a thick filament (actin) and a thin filament (myosin).

## 2.2 Muscle Contractions
Skeletal muscle contraction is a complex physiological process. Firstly, the process begins with a signal travelling along a motor nerve to its endings on a muscle fibre. At each ending, the nerve secretes acetylcholine (ACh), which binds to receptors on the muscle fibre membrane, initiating a chemical reaction within the muscle fibre. The binding of ACh will then trigger the release of calcium ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. The released calcium ions bind to troponin, causing tropomyosin to move away from the myosin-binding sites on actin. The next step involves the formation of cross-bridges between myosin heads and actin, which lead to the power stroke. During which, the myosin heads pull the actin filaments towards the centre of the sarcomere. This process is fueled by adenosine triphosphate (ATP). As myosin heads pull on the actin filaments, the filaments slide past the myosin filaments within the muscle fibre, causing the sarcomere to shorten. The cross-bridge cycling continues if calcium ions remain in the sarcoplasm to bind to troponin, and ATP is available to drive the cycling process. This results in more muscle contraction until calcium ions are pumped back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum and tropomyosin recovers the myosin binding sites on actin, which leads to muscle relaxation.

# 3.1 Aetiology and Pathophysiology of Skeletal Muscle Cramps
While the mechanism of muscle cramps is not yet fully understood, there are some theories that try to answer that question. Currently, there are two main theories that have been proposed to explain their occurrence: the dehydration/electrolyte imbalance theory, and neuromuscular theory.[^Bordoni] Additionally, there is evidence of a genetic component in some cases, as seen in conditions such as Brody myopathy are inherited disorders impacting skeletal muscle function.

## 3.1.1 Dehydration/Electrolyte Imbalance Theory
The dehydration/electrolyte imbalance theory is one of the most common and long-standing theories to better understand muscle cramps.[^Miller] It suggests that muscle cramps during exercise, known as Exercise-Associated Muscle Cramps (EAMCs), may be related to disturbances in water and slate balance within the body.

But this theory is not conclusive as there are studies that both support and reject this theory. In one study, it was found that when athletes sweat out 20-30% of their bodily sodium ions, whether through a game, match, or training session, there is a prompt response to a severe cramp.[^Bergeron] Furthermore, when temperatures are increased, so does sweating, making it look like that there is a plausible relationship. A study concluded that heat cramps made up 70% of common exertional heat illness.[^Cooper] However, this is contradicted in another study as 69% of participants still experienced EAMCs even though they were hydrated and supplemented with electrolytes.[^Jung] Additionally, cramps have been observed in cool environments with little or no sweat loss, indicating that factors other than sweat-induced electrolyte imbalance may be responsible for the onset of cramps.[^Maughan] Regardless of whether or not water may help one to recover from muscle cramps, it is still required for maintaining normal physiological functions during physical activity.

While the dehydration/electrolyte imbalance theory has been a common explanation for EAMCs, it does not fully account for all instances of muscle cramps, and its limits show the need for a broader scope to understand, treat, and prevent EAMC.

## 3.1.2 Neuromuscular Theory
While the dehydration/electrolyte imbalance theory has been a longstanding explanation for EMACs, it is likely that there are more factors that contribute to it, which has led to the development of the neuromuscular theory. Neuromuscular theory suggests that muscle cramps are primarily caused by an imbalance in the neuromuscular control of the muscle, rather than dehydration or electrolyte imbalances. Muscle spindles are sensory receptors within the muscle that detect changes in muscle length then send excitatory signals to the spinal cord when the muscle stretches. Golgi tendon organs (GTOs) are in the musculotendinous junction, and they detect changes in muscle tension, sending inhibitory signals to the spinal cord when the muscle contracts. Normally, these signals are balanced to allow controlled muscle contraction and relaxation. But during intense exercise the muscles become fatigued, the signals that are being sent are altered. Fatigue can increase the excitatory input from the muscle spindles and decrease the inhibitory input from the GTOs, and this imbalance is what leads to a muscle cramp.[^Miller]

Like the dehydration/electrolyte imbalance theory, there are some limitations to this theory. Firstly, the theory relies on methodologies that have produced inconsistent results. For example, most GTOs afferents do not show a significant change in firing response to stretching a fatigued muscle, which challenges the idea that GTOs activity is a key factor in cramps.[^Jung] Secondly, there is no defined fatigue threshold. The theory does not say how fatigued a muscle must be for a cramp to occur. It remains uncertain whether the required level of neuromuscular fatigue is primarily peripheral (within the muscle) or central (within the central nervous system), and this threshold may vary among individuals.[^Jung] Lastly, this theory does not explain why muscle cramps occur in non-athletes. Nocturnal leg cramps (NLCs) is a condition that affects ~37% of the American population above the age of 60[^Bordoni], and up to 60% of adults experience NLCs.[^Cleveland] NLCs are any kind of leg cramp that occurs at night when an individual is not very active or asleep. They can wake the individual up from their sleep and make it harder for them to return to sleep.[^Cleveland] These night cramps can also affect one’s sleep quality and quality of life.[^Bordoni]

The neuromuscular theory offers a valuable perspective on the aetiology of EAMCs, but it is better to consider it within the broader context of the various factors that contribute to a muscle cramp. Further research is needed to fully understand the mechanisms behind EAMC and to develop more effective treatment and prevention strategies.

## 3.2.1 Pathologies Relating to Muscle Cramps
Muscle cramps can be associated with a variety of pathologies. Some of these conditions are genetic, as seen with conditions like Brody myopathy and Hereditary Angiopathy with Nephropathy, Aneurysms, and Muscle Cramps Syndrome (HANAC), which are inherited disorders affecting skeletal muscle function.

Metabolic disorders can also affect cramps. Metabolic myopathies, which affect lipid or mitochondrial metabolism, can cause muscle cramps due to disrupted energy production in muscle cells. It can cause deficiency in ATP levels, and because muscle relation is an ATP-dependent active process, actin and myosin chains do not disengage, it will cause a cramp.[^Bryn]

Brody myopathy is a condition that affects skeletal muscle. It is a rare, autosomal, recessive, myopathy that affects about 1 in 10 million people.[^Molenaar] Affected individuals experience muscle cramping and stiffness after exercise, and the effects can worsen in cold temperatures.[^Medline] In some cases, exercise leads to the breakdown of muscle tissue (rhabdomyolysis), and the destruction of muscle tissue releases a protein called myoglobin, which can cause urine to turn into a red or brown colour.[^Medline] This condition is caused by mutations in the ATP2A1 gene, which encodes the SERCA1 enzyme.[^Medline] This enzyme is responsible for transporting calcium ions into the sarcoplasmic reticulum, a process crucial for muscle relaxation and mutations in the ATP2A1 gene result in a dysfunctional SERCA1 enzyme, leading to delayed muscle relaxation and cramping.[^Molenaar]

HANAC syndrome is inherited through an autosomal dominant pattern[^Chen], and is caused by mutations in the COL4A1 gene, which affect the stability of blood vessels and basement membranes throughout the body, including the kidneys, brain, muscles, and eyes.[^Medline2] Individuals with HANAC syndrome experience muscle cramps, affecting any muscle, and like any muscle cramp, they can be spontaneous or triggered by exercise.[^Medline2]

# 4.1 Management and Treatment Strategies
Almost every athlete has been told to do some stretching, incorporate some kind of warmup and cooldown before an exercise, or drink some water as preventative measures for cramps.[^BetterHealth] However, there are very limited, and inconclusive preventative measures we can take for preventing cramps, which are just lightening our workloads like reducing training frequency and intensities[^Bergeron], and contrary to popular belief, there has yet to be conclusive data to show stretching can prevent muscle cramps.[^Katzberg] Even with treatment, there are still very limited conclusions. One of the things one could do to relieve EAMC is lengthening the affected muscle(s).[^Schwellnus] There also has been some research done to prove the effectiveness of quinine derivatives, though effective, should be avoided for repetitive use due to its toxic nature.[^Katzberg] It has also been shown that vitamin B complex, Naftidrofuryl, and calcium channel blockers such as diltiazem may be effective in treating muscle cramps, but more investigation is needed to develop medications that are both effective and safe for the relief of muscle cramps.[^Katzberg]

# 5.1 Conclusion
Skeletal muscle cramps are involuntary, and frequently painful contractions that can significantly affect an individual's quality of life. The understanding of muscle cramps involves a complete understanding, considering the patient's scientific history, and muscle imbalances. The aetiology of cramps is diverse, with many physiological and pathological elements contributing to their existence. Muscle cramps may be related to a range of pathologies, along with benign leg cramps, EMACs, metabolic issues, and neurological conditions. The control and treatment of muscle cramps incorporate pharmacologic and nonpharmacologic methods. While most muscle cramps clear up on their own, they can be devastating for some people, especially athletes. It goes to show the ongoing debate surrounding the mechanisms and powerful treatments for muscle cramps, highlighting the need for similar studies in this region to enhance affected person effects and quality of life.

# Bibliography
Alaia, Michael J, and Rick Wilkerson. “Muscle Cramps - OrthoInfo - AAOS,” n.d. https://orthoinfo.aaos.org/en/diseases--conditions/muscle-cramps.

Bergeron, Michael F. “Muscle Cramps During Exercise-Is It Fatigue or Electrolyte Deficit?” Current Sports Medicine Reports 7, no. Suppl. 1 (July 1, 2008): S50–55. https://doi.org/10.1249/jsr.0b013e31817f476a.

Bordoni, Bruno, Kavin Sugumar, and Matthew Varacallo. “Muscle Cramps.” StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf, August 4, 2023. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499895/.

“Brody Myopathy: MedlinePlus Genetics,” n.d. https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/condition/brody-myopathy/.

Bryn Mawr Communications. “Muscle Cramps - Practical Neurology.” Practical Neurology, n.d. https://practicalneurology.com/articles/2019-aug-july/muscle-cramps.

Chen, Zhiyong, Tiffany Migeon, Marie-Christine Verpont, Mohamad Zaidan, Yoshikazu Sado, Dontscho Kerjaschki, Pierre Ronco, and Emmanuelle Plaisier. “HANAC Syndrome Col4a1 Mutation Causes Neonate Glomerular Hyperpermeability and Adult Glomerulocystic Kidney Disease.” Journal of the American Society of Nephrology 27, no. 4 (April 1, 2016): 1042–54. https://doi.org/10.1681/asn.2014121217.

Cooper, Earl R, Jr, Michael S Ferrara, and Steven P Broglio. “Exertional Heat Illness and Environmental Conditions During a Single Football Season in the Southeast.” J Athl Train 41, no. 3 (September 1, 2006): 332–36. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc1569552/.

Department of Health & Human Services. “Muscle Cramp.” Better Health Channel, n.d. https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/muscle-cramp.

“Hereditary Angiopathy With Nephropathy, Aneurysms, and Muscle Cramps Syndrome: MedlinePlus Genetics,” n.d. https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/condition/hereditary-angiopathy-with-nephropathy-aneurysms-and-muscle-cramps-syndrome/.

Jung, Alan P, Phillip A Bishop, Ali Al-Nawwas, and R Barry Dale. “Influence of Hydration and Electrolyte Supplementation on Incidence and Time to Onset of Exercise-Associated Muscle Cramps.” PubMed Central (PMC), June 1, 2005. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1150229/.

Katzberg, Hans D., Ahmir H. Khan, and Yuen T. So. “Assessment: Symptomatic Treatment for Muscle Cramps (an Evidence-based Review): Report of the Therapeutics and Technology Assessment Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology.” Neurology 74, no. 8 (February 23, 2010): 691–96. https://doi.org/10.1212/wnl.0b013e3181d0ccca.

Maughan, Ronald J., and Susan M. Shirreffs. “Muscle Cramping During Exercise: Causes, Solutions, and Questions Remaining.” Sports Medicine 49, no. S2 (November 6, 2019): 115–24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-019-01162-1.

Miller, Kevin, Marcus S. Stone, Kellie C. Huxel, and Jeffrey E. Edwards. “Exercise-Associated Muscle Cramps.” Sports Health 2, no. 4 (July 1, 2010): 279–83. https://doi.org/10.1177/1941738109357299.

Molenaar, J., Jamie I Verhoeven, Richard J. Rodenburg, Erik Jan Kamsteeg, Corrie E. Erasmus, Savine Vicart, Anthony Béhin, et al. “Clinical, Morphological and Genetic Characterization of Brody Disease: An International Study of 40 Patients.” Brain 143, no. 2 (February 1, 2020): 452–66. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awz410.

Physiotutors. “Muscle Cramps Explained by Science | Muscle Cramp Treatment Options,” November 19, 2021. https://www.physiotutors.com/wiki/muscle-cramps-explained/.

Professional, Cleveland Clinic Medical. “Leg Cramps.” Cleveland Clinic, n.d. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/14170-leg-cramps.

Schwellnus, Martin, E W Derman, and Timothy D. Noakes. “Aetiology of Skeletal Muscle ‘Cramps’ During Exercise: A Novel Hypothesis.” Journal of Sports Sciences 15, no. 3 (January 1, 1997): 277–85. https://doi.org/10.1080/026404197367281.

[^Bergeron]: Michael F. Bergeron, “Muscle Cramps During Exercise-Is It Fatigue or Electrolyte Deficit?,” Current Sports Medicine Reports 7, no. Suppl. 1 (July 1, 2008): S50–55, 10.1249/jsr.0b013e31817f476a.

[^Katzberg]: Hans D. Katzberg, Ahmir H. Khan, and Yuen T. So, “Assessment: Symptomatic Treatment for Muscle Cramps (an Evidence-based Review): Report of the Therapeutics and Technology Assessment Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology,” Neurology 74, no. 8 (February 23, 2010): 691–96, https://doi.org/10.1212/wnl.0b013e3181d0ccca.

[^Alaia]: Michael J Alaia and Rick Wilkerson, “Muscle Cramps - OrthoInfo - AAOS,” n.d., https://orthoinfo.aaos.org/en/diseases--conditions/muscle-cramps.

[^Miller]: Kevin Miller et al., “Exercise-Associated Muscle Cramps,” Sports Health 2, no. 4 (July 1, 2010): 279–83, https://doi.org/10.1177/1941738109357299.

[^Cooper]: Earl R Cooper Jr, Michael S Ferrara, and Steven P Broglio, “Exertional Heat Illness and Environmental Conditions During a Single Football Season in the Southeast,” J Athl Train 41, no. 3 (September 1, 2006): 332–36, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc1569552/.

[^Jung]:  Alan P Jung et al., “Influence of Hydration and Electrolyte Supplementation on Incidence and Time to Onset of Exercise-Associated Muscle Cramps,” PubMed Central (PMC), June 1, 2005, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1150229/.

[^Maughan]: Ronald J. Maughan and Susan M. Shirreffs, “Muscle Cramping During Exercise: Causes, Solutions, and Questions Remaining,” Sports Medicine 49, no. S2 (November 6, 2019): 115–24, https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-019-01162-1.

[^Bordoni]: Bruno Bordoni, Kavin Sugumar, and Matthew Varacallo, “Muscle Cramps,” StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf, August 4, 2023, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499895.

[^Cleveland]: Cleveland Clinic Medical Professional, “Leg Cramps,” Cleveland Clinic, n.d., https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/14170-leg-cramps.

[^Bryn]: Bryn Mawr Communications, “Muscle Cramps - Practical Neurology,” Practical Neurology, n.d., https://practicalneurology.com/articles/2019-aug-july/muscle-cramps.

[^Molenaar]: J. Molenaar et al., “Clinical, Morphological and Genetic Characterization of Brody Disease: An International Study of 40 Patients,” Brain 143, no. 2 (February 1, 2020): 452–66, https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awz410.

[^Medline]: “Brody Myopathy: MedlinePlus Genetics,” n.d., https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/condition/brody-myopathy/.

[^Medline2]: “Hereditary Angiopathy With Nephropathy, Aneurysms, and Muscle Cramps Syndrome: MedlinePlus Genetics,” n.d., https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/condition/hereditary-angiopathy-with-nephropathy-aneurysms-and-muscle-cramps-syndrome/.

[^Chen]: Zhiyong Chen et al., “HANAC Syndrome Col4a1 Mutation Causes Neonate Glomerular Hyperpermeability and Adult Glomerulocystic Kidney Disease,” Journal of the American Society of Nephrology 27, no. 4 (April 1, 2016): 1042–54, https://doi.org/10.1681/asn.2014121217.

[^BetterHealth]: Department of Health & Human Services, “Muscle Cramp,” Better Health Channel, n.d., https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/muscle-cramp.

[^Schwellnus]: Martin Schwellnus, E W Derman, and Timothy D. Noakes, “Aetiology of Skeletal Muscle ‘Cramps’ During Exercise: A Novel Hypothesis,” Journal of Sports Sciences 15, no. 3 (January 1, 1997): 277–85, https://doi.org/10.1080/026404197367281.

Hijacking our Minds: Effect of Short Form Content on Human Brains

How Social Media has Impacted Basketball

Skeletal Muscle Cramping: What Is It and What Can We Do to Prevent and Treat Them?